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    Y our liver is a huge and strong organ, as it performs literally hundreds of life-supportive functions within your body. Probably most importantly, the liver filters noxious chemicals from your blood. The liver is well-suited to this activity, but its role as a filter puts it squarely in the line of fire from the various toxins it filters through. Too many toxins can be more than it can cope with, at least in the short term, or even over the long term. Chronic liver diseases refer to the conditions of your liver that are usually long-term and chronic. Common causes that lead to chronic liver diseases include viral infections, such as those from hepatitis viruses, toxic poisoning, and metabolic conditions. The liver has great potential for regeneration, but it's always overtime working out to regenerate itself. Over time, it can't keep up with the repair. LIVER FUNCTION TESTS Liver enzyme test - Your liver enzymes are alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine transaminase (ALT), ...

A n autoclave is an apparatus which provides physical means for sterilization: killing bacteria and viruses, even spores in the material kept inside the vessel, by using steam under pressure. The autoclave sterilizes materials by heating them to an upward temperature for a specific amount of time. Autoclave is also known as steam sterilizer, which is generally used in health care departments and industries for several reasons. Autoclave is more efficient in sterilization because it operates on moist heat sterilization. A scientist named Chamberland in 1884 developed autoclave. PARTS An autoclave is a metallic vessel made of stainless steel or copper. It is a double walled cylinder in which one end is closed and another end is open. The open end is provided with a lid. The lid of an autoclave is equipped with pressure gauge, exhaust valve and safety valve. The closed end is provided with heating coil and a rusting plate.  PROCEDURE Water is filled below the level of resting plate. C...

  L ouis Pasteur discovered a technique of heating food just enough to process it without altering its composition. This process is termed as pasteurization.  It is a mild heating of process used to destroy spoilage organisms, without altering the composition of product.  By this process, non-spore forming pathogenic bacteria like mycobacteria, Salmonella, etc are destroyed. Pasteurization is done in 3 ways: High Temperature Short Time method (HTST) Low Temperature Holding method (LTH) Ultra High Temperature (UHT) High Temperature Short Time method (HTST) For this method, milk is heated to 72 degree Celsius for 15-20 secs followed by sudden cooling to 13 degree Celsius. By doing this, pathogenic bacteria are killed. Low Temperature Holding method (LTH) The same result is achieved when milk is heated to 62 degree Celsius for 30 mins followed by sudden cooling to 13 degree Celsius. Ultra High Temperature (UHT) Here milk and milk products are heated at 140 -150 degree Celsiu...

  P rion disease is a rare neurodegenerative disorder that affects humans and animals, causing brain damage and dementia. It affects about 1 in 1 million people worldwide and is terminally ill. Healthcare providers focus on treatments, including medication, to manage symptoms and help people cope with the changes it causes. Prion disease can be acquired through genetic mutations (familial prion disease) or exposure to prion infection (acquired prion disease). Sporadic prion diseases, such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), fatal insomnia, and variable protease-sensitive prionopathy, occur when normal proteins turn into prions for no known reason. Familial prion diseases develop when the PRNP gene mutates, creating an abnormal protein. There are over 50 different PRNP mutations that can cause different inherited prion diseases. Acquired prion disease can happen if people are exposed to contaminated food or medical equipment. Kuru, the first transmissible neurodegenerative disorder ...

  F ood is essential to the existence of life and provides energy for metabolic activities, thus sustaining all living organisms. In contrast, food adulteration is the addition of low-quality substances or products to food due to economic and technological reasons. This adulterant causes a deterioration of the nutritional content of food, making it unfit for human consumption. Several foods, such as cereals, pulses, dairy products, grains, meat, vegetables, fruits, oils, and beverages, contain adulterants. Food or food components are often contaminated or added in developing countries. Some of the prevalent causes are business strategies, imitation of another food substance, a lack of knowledge about the consumption of food properly, increasing production and sale of food, rising demand in the population, and maximum profit with minimum investments. The methods of adulteration include application of chemicals for artificial ripening of fruits and vegetables; mixing decayed fruits ...

G ram staining, one of the most frequently used techniques in microbiology, was developed by a Danish bacteriologist by the name of Hans Christian Gram way back in 1884. It differentiates between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. This staining method is useful in classifying microorganisms and distinguishing them from one another. In this process, some of the bacteria, stained by the primary stain, Crystal Violet, and fixed with the mordant, retain the primary stain, and some of them get decolorized by alcohol. In gram-positive bacteria, peptidoglycan is layered on the cell walls, and the lipid content is very low. Decolorization leads to the drying and shrinking of the cell wall, closing the pores and blocking the exit of the stain from the cell. The trapped Crystal Violet-Iodine complex appears blue or purple. While Gram-negative bacteria readily absorb the crystalline violet-iodine complex, due to the thin layer of peptidoglycan and thick outer layer of lipids, CV-Iodine com...